The elimination of foreign genes or characteristics from a population "contaminated" by another breed is possible only by selection of living herds or flocks and therefore this problem belongs also the in situ preservation.

If an ancient breed has been influenced by another breed, preservation is possible in three ways:

• by cryogenic methods - but this only postpones the problem of coping with the "contamination";
• by maintenance of the present gene structure in a gene pool. This is possible, but the value of such a population is not so high because of the influence from other, often highly producing, breeds (but it is a method of preserving genes);
• by special selection, which can be called "purification" in this case.

To guarantee the preservation of such a population we should be convinced that it does not carry more than 20 per cent of foreign blood (Alderson, 1981). However, the precise determination of this percentage may be very difficult. If the population in question has valuable traits, purification can result in a good population which has merit enough to be preserved. When the foreign influence is too great, a new breed name should be given in order to be authentic.

Thus, the purification is essentially a selection procedure. However, the culling of animals, carriers of foreign genes, is very dangerous when the population size is small. Therefore, with the population in critical status the first step is to increase the population size. Selection is then carried out by culling the animals with markings or characters of another breed or breeds. During this selection an attempt should be made not to decrease the genetic variability in other traits and to maintain the value of the population in question. The selection of males should be emphasized.

Heritage animals were bred over time to develop traits that made them particularly well-adapted to local environmental conditions. Heritage breeds are generally better adapted to withstand disease and survive in harsh environmental conditions, and their bodies can be better suited to living on pasture.

These livestock breeds also serve as an important genetic resource, and when heritage breeds become extinct, their unique genes are lost forever and can't be used to breed new traits into existing livestock breeds. Therefore, by raising heritage livestock breeds, sustainable farmers not only maintain variety within our livestock populations, they also help to preserve valuable traits within the species so that future breeds can endure harsh conditions.

PROTOCOLS

Purpose
The objective of card grading is to evaluate individual animals relative to a breed standard and assess their potential as breeding stock. Card grading, with its evaluation of all individuals within a group of animals, strengthens breeders’ understanding of the characteristics and attributes of their breed and, in turn, encourages the protection of genetic diversity within the breed. This is in contrast to competitive judging, which encourages uniformity by rewarding only a single "best" animal within a show class.

Card grading is not complicated and, in fact, is the same process that successful breeders have always practiced. Each animal presented for evaluation receives a grade (represented by a card). This is another contrast to regular judging, in which the only evaluations made are the ribbons given to top placed animals.

The results of card grading evaluation can be used in conjunction with pedigree analysis to plan breeding programs for individual flocks/herds or for entire breeds, making card grading a powerful tool for conservation breeding.

The method of card grading evaluation has been used primarily for sheep and poultry, but it can be adapted for any species of livestock. Card grading may be used by individual breed associations to serve as the sole basis for evaluation or it may be used in conjunction with traditional competitive showing and judging.

Card grading is done by a team of three or four breed specialists, who must agree on the grade given to each animal. The team works from a breed standard provided to them prior to the event by the breed association or show organizers. Each animal is evaluated for physical soundess and for appearance relative to the breed standard. Some breed associations have developed a scale of points, with points being assigned to individual characteristics of the breed standard. Characteristics will carry different weightings, indicating their relative importance. Generally, the points are summed for an overall score. However, care must be taken in using a strictly numeric approach. For example, an animal with bad feet should be failed, regardless of its other redeeming qualities. Again, card grading is a strategy for assessing physical soundness as well as phenotype. To find point scales, contact the breed association or ALBC. The American Poultry Association’s has published scales for each of the poultry species in the APA American Standard of Perfection.

When the evaluators agree on the grade for an individual animal, it is given a colored card to represent this grade. The card may be attached to the animal or to its stall or pen. One of the evaluators (or an additional scribe) records the results and evaluators’ comments. The scribe serves as an evaluator when animals belonging to one of the other team members are being evaluated. A verbal or written evaluation is provided to the owner of each animal. Written comments need not match a scorecard format, but instead should note characteristics significant to the assignment of grades.

If animals are to be auctioned after evaluation, cards should remain with them through sale to assist both seller and buyers. The grade given to each animal is made on that day and is not considered a permanent evaluation.

Blue Card – An excellent breeding animal conforming to breed standard and free from any genetically based unsoundness.

Red Card – A good breeding animal which shows most of the breed characteristics and is free from genetically based unsoundness.

Yellow Card – An acceptable, average breeding animal with no disqualifying deviations from breed standard nor genetically based unsoundness.

White Card – An unacceptable breeding animal which does not conform to breed standard, is of another breed, or is genetically unsound. These animals are excused from the show (and sale) and should not be used for pure breeding.

Pedigree study and genetic research will be a new idea for many breeders. We all are used to focusing on conformation evaluation, an important element in choosing breeding stock. Many breed associations place a heavy emphasis on phenotype (conformation), such as Warmblood societies, and they have been successful with this method. Pedigree is also considered, but usually only to the 3rd generation.

As a pedigree specialist notes, the value of the phenotype of the horse is a powerful indicator of which part of the pedigree the horse is throwing to. But breeders should not be seduced into thinking that conformation is all that matters. Phenotype is only a portion of the genetic blueprint the horse carries, and for breeders it is important for their success to understand the full genetic package, for your horse, or the mate you choose, might not breed "true to type".

Every time you breed a horse you get a mix of the genetics - it is very much like a kaleidoscope, always the same pieces of colored glass but a different picture each time you rotate the view. If you could lessen the number of colors of glass to just a few, then when you turned the tube you would find the images much more consistent. So it is also with genetics, pre-potency is the result of focusing and increasing the input of desired superior genes. Not just close up, but real consistency in offspring comes when the far reaches are involved also.

Stallions are often thought to be the most influential part of the stallion-mare mating equation. If they consistently throw successful foals, they quickly develop national and international reputations and earn high stud fees. Stallions also are the ones in the spotlight: in breeding issues of equine magazines, in advertisements for breeding farms and in every hopeful trainer's and competitor's heart.

Genetically, the mare is responsible for at least 50 percent of the foal. Some breeders even argue by observation that the dam affects the offspring at a rate of 60 percent or more. In the majority of cases, breeding experts will tell you the mare's characteristics override the stallion's.

A rule of thumb in the breeding world is that you can breed a mediocre stallion to a great mare and still have a nice foal. But breed a great stallion to an undesirable mare? The results will be disastrous. Temperament, conformation and talent are each critically tied to the mare's genetic structure, a structure she passes from generation to generation. Therefore, understanding the mare's crucial role in the breeding process is an undeniably essential part of the breeding equation.

Breeders often make the mistake of thinking that mares are not as important as stallions, and that is not true.

The mares are the genetic basis of the breeding equation. The dam lines are the origin of all breeding products and are passed consistently through all generations.

It is easier to switch to a different stallion if a certain combination of mare and stallion does not produce a good foal. If you have a mare with a negative trait, you can try to select the right stallion to override that trait, but that approach will seldom succeed completely. Mares pass on everything - not only their appearance, health, character, temperament and movement, but little things such as ticklishness, ear shyness and chewing on the reins. Every little thing moves from generation to generation.

A very good mare can be bred to a not-so-good stallion and she will still produce a useable product. However, when a very good stallion is bred to a not-so-good mare, it is very rare to get a nice foal. A foal doesn't just inherit physical traits from the mare. In the formative first months after birth, the foal takes on many characteristics of the mare's behavior. The foal's personality will often become identical to the mare's. Therefore, it is dangerous for a breeder to overlook the mare's powerful influence on her baby.

To decide whether or not to breed a mare, top breeders first study a mare's pedigree. You can't just take a wonderful mare who looks like a beauty queen and expect a perfect foal. You really must know that mare's pedigree. How safe is the mare's background? If she is the number-one mare in the world and is mixed with a certain stallion, she might not throw a beautiful foal. Heredity is everything, a mare's or stallion's smallest habits will always show up again, even if it's several generations down the line.

The mare isn't the only one who passes on her qualities. "Her lineage-usually up to the sixth generation-is passed on as well. Just as important is studying the mare's progeny to make sure she's passing along her positive traits.

The mare also should produce above-average progeny from different stallions. Breeders also take into account a mare's physical characteristics and movement when deciding whether or not to breed her. A mare also has to have a lovely eye, and three good gaits. Rideability and temperament are critical, too. Character and the desire to work is very important. If you have a foal that's not the best foal, but he likes work, he is still useful for everyone.

The mare should have a sociable and friendly character and have a tremendous personality. In addition, she needs a mothering instinct.

Last, but far from least, is a mare's general health and reproductive ability. People often forget the importance of fertility. If you have a perfect mare that is very difficult to get in foal, that is not good. If a mare has stillborn foals for two or three years, genetically deformed foals or foals with severe conformation faults, she should not be bred again.

But sometimes it is difficult to tell if the foal's problems are from the mare or from the stallion.

Nature can be wrong and sometimes makes mistakes, so it is important to try more than once if you do encounter a problem, because it is not likely to happen again.

Remember, however, that not all problems show up immediately. Most exterior problems and defects are very often inheritable genetically and these traits often wait until the second generation to show up.

At the very least, a breeder should re-evaluate his mares every year to make sure they still meet the current criteria of good foaling mares. The most important thing for a breeder is to have enough self-criticism to be able to honestly judge the quality of his broodmares. Don't worry about only having a few mares. If your mares are high quality, it is not a problem to produce good offspring. One should only breed the best mares and sell the ones that have not proven to be good enough.

A horse's pedigree is a portion of its family tree. In its simplest form, it identifies a horse's sire and dam, grandsires and granddams, great-grandsires and great-granddams, and so forth, extending back as many generations as the ancestors can be traced.

Every creature is influenced in virtually every respect by its genetic makeup. Every physical trait, from coat color to hoof quality, is governed by a horse's genes. To varying degrees, a horse's genetics also impact its movement, aptitude for a given discipline, disposition, and mental attributes.

For a horse to have a specific trait, such as a blue eye, it has to have the genetic programming for that characteristic in its background, either expressed or carried by one or more horses in its pedigree. However, a horse with a blue eye may not necessarily sire or give birth to a foal with a blue eye, or any other specific trait, due to the fact that some traits are recessive and some are dominant.

From basic biology, we know that genes are carried on chromosomes. In any particular mating, there are literally billions of ways in which the chromosomes (and thus, the genes) of the sire and dam may combine to produce the wonderful creation that is a foal.

For this reason, predicting with certainty the characteristics of a foal is no easy task. In fact, it is impossible! So is breeding just a "crap-shoot"? Is an excellent foal the result of "dumb luck"?

Not at all. Through careful research of pedigrees, the conscientious breeder can have greater certainty in the outcome of a given mating, and the well-informed owner will have information about the likely usefulness of a particular horse for a given discipline.

Some horses have the ability to consistently reproduce themselves in breeding, with their offspring bearing close resemblance to them. These horses are said to "stamp" their foals. They are considered "prepotent" for some, or many, characteristics. These characteristics may be positive, as in the case of a horse which consistently produces straight and strong legs. However, the characteristics may be unfavorable, as when a horse consistently passes on to its get a weak back.

Why are some horses prepotent and some not? This may be a fluke of nature or the product of human intervention.

Some bloodlines are known for producing certain traits, such as the innate jumping ability seen in the Trakehner bloodlines of Donauwind, Hartung, and to a degree, Flaneur.

Some bloodlines are known for traits expressed only in the female line. One example of this is the consistent ability of the daughters of Impuls and Ibikus to produce foals of exceptional quality. Of course, whenever there is a generalization made about the characteristics of a bloodline, there will be some horses of that line which do not breed true. Conversely, there can always be a standout from bloodlines which do not have any recognized attributes.

Long ago, breeders discovered that breeding a stallion and mare which are related to each other can often cause the resultant horse to be "prepotent." While this sort of intensive mating to concentrate a bloodline can produce an outstanding animal, it can also produce one which is inferior. The breeder undertaking such a program must diligently assess the outcome of those matings, and often the progeny of the resulting foal, and ruthlessly cull from the program individuals which do not measure up to the desired standard.

Through research of the conformation and performance capabilities of an individual horse and horses appearing in its pedigree, the breeder can make informed decisions about which stallions and mares may combine to produce an outstanding foal. Similarly, a person seeking a horse for a given performance discipline or for breeding can use pedigree research to determine which animal is most likely to meet their expectations.

Firstly, consider this: The Thoroughbred as a breed originated from just three stallions. The Godolphin Arabian, the Byerly Turk and the Darley Arabian*. In fact, recent research found that, in 95% of modern Thoroughbred racehorses, the Y-chromosome can be traced back to this single stallion*!

Possibly the most important tool a horse breeder has at their disposal are the pedigrees of their breeding stock. After everything else has been considered (from conformation to coat colour and absolutely everything else possible in between!) - the intelligent and competent use of a pedigree is what separates a skilled horse breeder (i.e. a breeder with an ‘eye’ for a horse) and someone who simply breeds hoping the result will be successful.

The most respected and successful breeders, amongst others, throughout time have employed line breeding of their finest animals as their key tool to create equine masterpieces

The purpose and point of line breeding is simple: to produce horses who can pass on their [superior] traits i.e. homozygosity. One line breeds in order to set the desired characteristics by increasing homozygosity, which allows a horse to pass on their traits generation after generation. Line breeding sets the ‘type’ (i.e. phenotype) and genetic material (i.e. genotype) thereby allowing the horses to reproduce themselves accurately and reliably. This entrenches (by doubling up or tripling up - depending upon the extent of the line breeding) the desirable traits when one is developing a breed or a type for a specific purpose.

This should only be practiced with superior quality animals, with no conformational defects or heritable abnormalities and that, in the case of a sire, he is prepotent and his offspring bear all his good attributes. It goes without saying that one uses both the conformation of the said animals as well as the pedigree when making breeding decisions. It is not sufficient to go simply by pedigree alone, or by phenotype alone. The two are inseparable.

Each parent provides 50% of the genetic make-up to a foal.

The following charts give you the percentage of genetic material coming from each horse in that generation. An old "saying" indicates that a horse must carry at least 18% of a certain individual in the pedigree to see any potential real physical or mental influence from that ancestor.

When a common ancestor appears, you add together each percentage level to determine the total overall influence. [Shown in charts 2 and 3]

Chart 1 – percentages of genetic influence from each generation: for example: this horse "YOR High Noon" is 25% High Sign, 50% SW Red Velvet.

Chart 2 below – multiple common ancestors: add together each common ancestor to get the total genetic influence coming from that horse. Each common ancestor shown is color coded.

Examples: The paternal great grandfather is also the maternal great-great grandfather "High Sign". Add together 12.5% and 6.25% = 18.75% influence of "High Sign" in this horse YOR Fine Line.

The paternal grand dam "SW Red Velvet" is also the maternal great grand dam. Add together 25% and 12.5% = 37.5% influence of "SW Red Velvet" in this horse.

Chart 3 - An example of a line bred KING horse is given below:

Each time King is represented in the pedigree is highlighted in blue. Adding only the generations shown in this pedigree below we would add 12.5% two times and 3.125% three times to give a total of 34.375% King blood in this horse. (There may be additional incidences of King in further generations that are not shown in the six generation pedigree given, which would increase the percent of King in the horse.)

It is believed that the Hill Pony Improvement Societies became established as a result of the Commons Act 1908.  However, some Hill Societies pre-dated The Bill and may have acted as an instigator to The Bill itself. The early Welsh Stud Book reported that The Right Hon. Earl Carrington, G.C.M.G., President of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, received a deputation on the subject of protection and improvement of the breed.  Lord Kenyon led the deputation and the meeting eventually resulted in the Act of Parliament, intended to assist with the improvement of Hill Ponies and their breeding. The Act itself still stands today, enabling control of the ponies, especially entires, roaming common land to ensure breeding standards are maintained.